Using Database Drivers, Connection Pools, and Prepared Statements – Detailed Notes

Course: MySQL Training

Topic: Using Database Drivers, Connection Pools, and Prepared Statements

Course Link: MySQL Training Course at JustAcademy

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1. Introduction

Modern applications rely on databases to store, retrieve, update, and manage information. When an application communicates with MySQL, it needs a suitable database driver, a reliable method of managing connections, and a safe way to execute SQL queries.

Three important concepts in database programming are database drivers, connection pools, and prepared statements. These concepts work together to improve database connectivity, application performance, resource management, and query security.

• Database drivers: Allow applications to communicate with a specific database system.
• Connection pools: Manage reusable database connections to reduce repeated connection setup overhead.
• Prepared statements: Execute parameterized SQL statements and help protect applications from SQL injection.

These techniques are commonly used in Java applications through JDBC, but similar concepts also exist in PHP, Python, .NET, Node.js, and other programming environments.

2. Learning Objectives

After studying this topic, learners should be able to:

• Understand the purpose of database drivers.
• Explain how JDBC drivers connect Java applications to MySQL.
• Configure MySQL Connector/J in a Java project.
• Understand database connection creation and lifecycle management.
• Explain connection pooling and its advantages.
• Configure and use a connection pool in a Java application.
• Understand prepared statements and parameter binding.
• Execute SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE operations using PreparedStatement.
• Identify SQL injection risks and apply appropriate prevention techniques.
• Diagnose common connection and query errors.
• Apply database security and performance best practices.

3. Understanding Database Drivers

3.1 What Is a Database Driver?

A database driver is a software component that allows an application or programming interface to communicate with a particular database system. It translates database access requests into a protocol the database can understand and processes responses returned by the database.

For example, a Java application may use JDBC to send a query. The MySQL JDBC driver communicates with the MySQL server and makes the returned data available to the Java program.

3.2 Why Are Database Drivers Required?

Different database systems may use different communication protocols, authentication mechanisms, data types, and database-specific features. A suitable driver provides the functionality needed to connect an application to the selected database.

• Establishes communication with a database server.
• Supports authentication and connection configuration.
• Transmits SQL statements to the database.
• Processes database responses and query results.
• Supports database-specific data types and features.
• Reports connection and query errors to the application.

3.3 Examples of Database Drivers

3.4 What Is JDBC?

JDBC stands for Java Database Connectivity. It is a Java API that provides standard interfaces for accessing relational databases. JDBC defines how Java applications request connections, execute SQL statements, retrieve results, and manage transactions.

JDBC itself is not the MySQL database driver. Instead, it provides the API that the MySQL driver implements.

3.5 JDBC Architecture

Java Application
       |
       v
JDBC API
       |
       v
MySQL Connector/J
       |
       v
MySQL Database Server
       |
       v
Query Results
       |
       v
Java Application

3.6 Common JDBC Components

4. Installing and Configuring MySQL Connector/J

MySQL Connector/J is the official JDBC driver for MySQL. A Java application needs the driver dependency available at runtime to communicate with a MySQL server.

4.1 Prerequisites

• A compatible Java Development Kit (JDK).
• A running MySQL server.
• MySQL Connector/J.
• An IDE such as IntelliJ IDEA, Eclipse, or NetBeans.
• A database and an authorized database account.
• Maven or Gradle, if dependency management is used.

4.2 Add the Driver Using Maven

Add the following dependency to the project's pom.xml file:

<dependencies>
    <dependency>
        <groupId>com.mysql</groupId>
        <artifactId>mysql-connector-j</artifactId>
        <version>YOUR_COMPATIBLE_VERSION</version>
    </dependency>
</dependencies>

Replace YOUR_COMPATIBLE_VERSION with a valid Connector/J release compatible with the project's Java version and requirements.

4.3 Add the Driver Using Gradle

dependencies {
    implementation("com.mysql:mysql-connector-j:YOUR_COMPATIBLE_VERSION")
}

After adding the dependency, refresh the Maven or Gradle project so that the build tool downloads the driver.

4.4 JDBC Connection URL

A typical MySQL JDBC URL uses this structure:

jdbc:mysql://HOST:PORT/DATABASE_NAME

For a local MySQL server using port 3306 and a database named company_db, the URL is:

jdbc:mysql://localhost:3306/company_db

Additional connection properties may be required for TLS, timeouts, character encoding, or timezone handling. Configure them according to the application's environment and security requirements.

5. Establishing a Database Connection

A database connection provides the communication channel through which an application executes queries and receives results. In JDBC, a connection can be obtained using DriverManager or a DataSource.

5.1 Basic Connection Example

import java.sql.Connection;
import java.sql.DriverManager;
import java.sql.SQLException;

public class DatabaseConnectionDemo {
    private static final String URL =
            "jdbc:mysql://localhost:3306/company_db";

    public static void main(String[] args) {
        String username = System.getenv("DB_USER");
        String password = System.getenv("DB_PASSWORD");

        if (username == null || password == null) {
            System.err.println("Database credentials are not configured.");
            return;
        }

        try (Connection connection =
                     DriverManager.getConnection(URL, username, password)) {
            System.out.println("Database connected successfully.");
        } catch (SQLException e) {
            System.err.println("Unable to connect to the database.");
            System.err.println("SQLState: " + e.getSQLState());
            System.err.println("Error code: " + e.getErrorCode());
        }
    }
}

This example reads credentials from environment variables instead of storing them directly in source code. The connection is automatically closed at the end of the try-with-resources block.

5.2 Understanding the Connection Lifecycle

1. Load the required database driver through the runtime dependency configuration.
2. Configure the JDBC URL and authentication details.
3. Request a connection.
4. Execute database operations using statements.
5. Process returned results.
6. Close statements, result sets, and connections after use.

5.3 Why Should Connections Be Closed?

Database connections consume server and application resources. Unclosed connections may remain active longer than intended and contribute to connection exhaustion, reduced performance, and failed requests.

Using try-with-resources is a recommended approach because it closes JDBC resources automatically when execution leaves the block.

6. Understanding Connection Pools

6.1 What Is a Connection Pool?

A connection pool is a managed collection of database connections that an application can reuse. Instead of establishing a new physical database connection for every operation, the application borrows an available connection from the pool and returns it after use.

Connection pools are especially useful in web applications, APIs, and backend services where many requests may access the database repeatedly.

6.2 Why Are Connection Pools Needed?

Establishing a physical database connection can involve network communication, authentication, session setup, and resource allocation. Repeating these steps for every query can increase overhead.

A connection pool reduces repeated setup work by maintaining reusable connections and controlling how many connections the application opens.

6.3 How Connection Pooling Works

Java Application
       |
       v
Connection Pool
       |
       +---- Available Connection 1
       |
       +---- Available Connection 2
       |
       +---- Available Connection 3
       |
       v
MySQL Database Server

When the application needs database access, the pool supplies a connection. When the application closes the borrowed connection, the pool normally returns it to the available pool for reuse rather than immediately closing the physical connection.

6.4 Connection Pool Workflow

1. The application requests a connection from a DataSource.
2. The pool checks whether an available connection can be supplied.
3. If one is available, it is returned to the application.
4. If necessary and permitted by the pool configuration, a new physical connection is created.
5. The application executes its database operations.
6. The application closes the borrowed connection.
7. The pool makes the connection available for another operation, subject to its configuration and connection health.

6.5 Benefits of Connection Pooling

6.6 Connection Pooling vs Direct Connections

7. Popular Java Connection Pool Libraries

Several libraries provide connection pooling for Java applications.

7.1 Using HikariCP with Maven

To use HikariCP directly, add a compatible version to the Maven project. The following dependency shows the general format:

<dependency>
    <groupId>com.zaxxer</groupId>
    <artifactId>HikariCP</artifactId>
    <version>YOUR_COMPATIBLE_VERSION</version>
</dependency>

Replace the placeholder with a valid HikariCP version compatible with the project. The MySQL Connector/J dependency must also be present.

7.2 Configuring a HikariCP DataSource

import com.zaxxer.hikari.HikariConfig;
import com.zaxxer.hikari.HikariDataSource;

import javax.sql.DataSource;

public class PooledDataSource {
    private static final HikariDataSource DATA_SOURCE = createDataSource();

    private static HikariDataSource createDataSource() {
        HikariConfig config = new HikariConfig();

        config.setJdbcUrl("jdbc:mysql://localhost:3306/company_db");
        config.setUsername(System.getenv("DB_USER"));
        config.setPassword(System.getenv("DB_PASSWORD"));

        config.setMaximumPoolSize(10);
        config.setMinimumIdle(2);
        config.setConnectionTimeout(30000);

        return new HikariDataSource(config);
    }

    public static DataSource getDataSource() {
        return DATA_SOURCE;
    }

    private PooledDataSource() {
    }
}

This example illustrates the main configuration concepts. Before initializing the pool, production code should validate required configuration values and fail safely if credentials are missing. The maximum pool size, minimum idle connections, and timeout should be selected according to application traffic and database capacity.

7.3 Obtaining a Pooled Connection

import java.sql.Connection;
import java.sql.SQLException;

public class PooledConnectionExample {
    public static void main(String[] args) {
        try (Connection connection =
                 PooledDataSource.getDataSource().getConnection()) {
            System.out.println("Pooled connection acquired.");
        } catch (SQLException e) {
            System.err.println("Unable to acquire a connection.");
        }
    }
}

Closing this connection returns it to the pool for reuse. The pool itself should be closed during application shutdown so its resources can be released.

7.4 Choosing Pool Size

A larger connection pool does not automatically make an application faster. Too many concurrent database connections can increase server load and contention.

• Consider the application's request concurrency.
• Consider MySQL server capacity and connection limits.
• Measure query duration and connection acquisition time.
• Monitor pool usage under realistic workloads.
• Adjust the pool size based on performance tests rather than guesswork alone.

8. Understanding Prepared Statements

8.1 What Is a Prepared Statement?

A prepared statement is a parameterized SQL statement that is created through the database access API and supplied with values separately. In Java JDBC, the PreparedStatement interface is commonly used for this purpose.

Prepared statements allow applications to execute SQL using placeholders. They improve query clarity and help prevent SQL injection by separating SQL structure from bound parameter values.

8.2 Example of a Normal SQL Statement

SELECT * FROM employees WHERE department = 'IT';

This query retrieves employees from the IT department. If the department value comes from application input, constructing the SQL string through concatenation can introduce security risks.

8.3 Example Using PreparedStatement

String sql = "SELECT id, name, department FROM employees WHERE department = ?";

try (Connection con = PooledDataSource.getDataSource().getConnection();
     java.sql.PreparedStatement ps = con.prepareStatement(sql)) {

    ps.setString(1, "IT");

    try (java.sql.ResultSet rs = ps.executeQuery()) {
        while (rs.next()) {
            System.out.println(
                rs.getInt("id") + " - " +
                rs.getString("name") + " - " +
                rs.getString("department")
            );
        }
    }
}

The question mark represents a parameter. The setString(1, "IT") call binds the first parameter to the value IT.

8.4 How Prepared Statements Work

1. The application defines an SQL statement containing parameter placeholders.
2. The application creates a PreparedStatement through a database connection.
3. The application binds values using methods such as setString(), setInt(), or setBigDecimal().
4. The statement is executed.
5. The application processes the returned results or update count.

The JDBC driver and database determine the precise execution and optimization behavior. Prepared statements can support efficient repeated execution, but caching and server-side preparation depend on the driver, configuration, and database.

9. PreparedStatement Methods

10. Using PreparedStatement for INSERT

PreparedStatement is commonly used to insert records safely.

String sql =
    "INSERT INTO employees (name, email, department) VALUES (?, ?, ?)";

try (Connection con = PooledDataSource.getDataSource().getConnection();
     java.sql.PreparedStatement ps = con.prepareStatement(sql)) {

    ps.setString(1, "Riya Sharma");
    ps.setString(2, "[email protected]");
    ps.setString(3, "IT");

    int rows = ps.executeUpdate();
    System.out.println(rows + " employee record inserted.");
}

This code assumes that the employees table exists and contains the specified columns. The connection comes from the configured DataSource, and the connection and statement are closed automatically.

11. Using PreparedStatement for UPDATE

The UPDATE statement changes existing records. A WHERE clause is important because omitting it can modify every row in the table.

String sql =
    "UPDATE employees SET department = ? WHERE id = ?";

try (Connection con = PooledDataSource.getDataSource().getConnection();
     java.sql.PreparedStatement ps = con.prepareStatement(sql)) {

    ps.setString(1, "Finance");
    ps.setInt(2, 5);

    int rows = ps.executeUpdate();
    System.out.println(rows + " employee record(s) updated.");
}

The example changes the department for the employee with ID 5. If no matching record exists, the affected-row count may be zero.

12. Using PreparedStatement for DELETE

Prepared statements can also delete records using parameterized conditions.

String sql = "DELETE FROM employees WHERE id = ?";

try (Connection con = PooledDataSource.getDataSource().getConnection();
     java.sql.PreparedStatement ps = con.prepareStatement(sql)) {

    ps.setInt(1, 10);

    int rows = ps.executeUpdate();
    System.out.println(rows + " employee record(s) deleted.");
}

Always verify deletion conditions and apply any required authorization checks before removing data.

13. PreparedStatement and SQL Injection

13.1 What Is SQL Injection?

SQL injection is a security vulnerability in which untrusted input changes the intended structure or meaning of an SQL statement. It commonly occurs when applications build SQL by directly concatenating user-provided text.

13.2 Unsafe Query Construction

String department = userInput;

String sql =
    "SELECT * FROM employees WHERE department = '" +
    department + "'";

This approach is unsafe when the input is untrusted because the supplied text becomes part of the SQL command.

13.3 Safer Query Construction

String sql =
    "SELECT * FROM employees WHERE department = ?";

try (Connection con = PooledDataSource.getDataSource().getConnection();
     java.sql.PreparedStatement ps = con.prepareStatement(sql)) {

    ps.setString(1, userInput);

    try (java.sql.ResultSet rs = ps.executeQuery()) {
        while (rs.next()) {
            System.out.println(rs.getString("name"));
        }
    }
}

Binding the input as a parameter helps keep it separate from the SQL statement structure. This is a key defense against SQL injection for values used in parameterized queries.

13.4 Important Security Limitations

• PreparedStatement placeholders represent values, not table names, column names, or SQL keywords.
• Dynamic identifiers should be selected from an explicit allowlist when necessary.
• Parameterized queries do not replace authentication, authorization, or input validation.
• Database accounts should have only the permissions required by the application.
• Do not display database credentials or sensitive values in error messages.

14. Combining Drivers, Connection Pools, and Prepared Statements

These three concepts perform different but complementary roles in a database application.

14.1 Complete Workflow

1. Configure MySQL Connector/J as a project dependency.
2. Configure a connection pool with the MySQL JDBC URL and protected credentials.
3. Request a connection from the DataSource.
4. Create a PreparedStatement containing parameter placeholders.
5. Bind parameter values using suitable setter methods.
6. Execute the query and process the results.
7. Close the result set, statement, and borrowed connection.
8. The pool returns the connection for reuse.

14.2 Example: Search Employees by Department

import java.sql.Connection;
import java.sql.PreparedStatement;
import java.sql.ResultSet;
import java.sql.SQLException;

public class EmployeeSearch {
    public static void searchByDepartment(String department)
            throws SQLException {

        String sql =
            "SELECT id, name, email FROM employees WHERE department = ?";

        try (Connection con =
                 PooledDataSource.getDataSource().getConnection();
             PreparedStatement ps = con.prepareStatement(sql)) {

            ps.setString(1, department);

            try (ResultSet rs = ps.executeQuery()) {
                while (rs.next()) {
                    System.out.println(
                        rs.getInt("id") + " | " +
                        rs.getString("name") + " | " +
                        rs.getString("email")
                    );
                }
            }
        }
    }
}

This example combines a configured connection pool with PreparedStatement. The pool manages connection reuse, while the prepared statement safely binds the department value. The code assumes that the DataSource and employees table are configured correctly.

15. Database Transactions and Connection Pools

Transactions allow multiple database operations to succeed or fail as a unit. When using a connection pool, transaction handling must remain within the lifecycle of the borrowed connection.

15.1 Transaction Example

import java.sql.Connection;
import java.sql.PreparedStatement;
import java.sql.SQLException;

public class EmployeeTransaction {
    public static void updateDepartment(int employeeId, String department)
            throws SQLException {

        String sql =
            "UPDATE employees SET department = ? WHERE id = ?";

        try (Connection con =
                 PooledDataSource.getDataSource().getConnection()) {

            con.setAutoCommit(false);

            try (PreparedStatement ps = con.prepareStatement(sql)) {
                ps.setString(1, department);
                ps.setInt(2, employeeId);

                ps.executeUpdate();
                con.commit();

            } catch (SQLException e) {
                try {
                    con.rollback();
                } catch (SQLException rollbackError) {
                    e.addSuppressed(rollbackError);
                }
                throw e;
            }
        }
    }
}

This example demonstrates a transaction around a single update. For operations that involve multiple related statements, execute all of them on the same connection and commit only after the required operations succeed. Ensure rollback is attempted after failures.

15.2 Transaction Best Practices with Pools

• Do not return a connection to the pool while a transaction is still active.
• Commit or roll back before closing the borrowed connection.
• Keep transactions short to avoid holding connections unnecessarily.
• Ensure connection state is reset or managed correctly by the pool.
• Use a transactional storage engine such as InnoDB for operations that require transactional guarantees.

16. Common Errors and Troubleshooting

16.1 Troubleshooting Checklist

1. Confirm that the MySQL server is running.
2. Verify the JDBC URL, database name, host, and port.
3. Check that Connector/J is present in the runtime dependency configuration.
4. Validate the database account and its permissions.
5. Confirm that the connection pool is initialized correctly.
6. Review the maximum pool size and acquisition timeout.
7. Ensure every borrowed connection is closed after use.
8. Check SQL statements, parameter positions, and column names.
9. Review application logs without exposing credentials or sensitive information.

17. Performance Best Practices

• Use a compatible and supported database driver.
• Use connection pooling when database access is frequent.
• Configure pool limits based on measured workload and database capacity.
• Use PreparedStatement for queries containing parameter values.
• Retrieve only the columns needed by the application.
• Use indexes based on actual query patterns and query-plan analysis.
• Use pagination for large result sets.
• Use batch operations for appropriate groups of writes.
• Close JDBC resources promptly.
• Keep transactions short and avoid holding connections during unrelated work.
• Monitor query latency, connection wait time, and database load.

18. Security Best Practices

• Never hardcode production database passwords in source code.
• Use environment variables or a secrets manager for credentials.
• Grant the application account only the required database privileges.
• Use parameterized queries to reduce SQL injection risk.
• Validate dynamic table and column identifiers against allowlists.
• Configure TLS for connections that cross untrusted networks.
• Keep the database driver and server updated.
• Restrict database network access to authorized hosts.
• Do not log passwords or sensitive query parameters.
• Use appropriate authentication and authorization in the application.

19. Practical Project: Employee Management Application

Create a Java application that manages employee records in MySQL using a JDBC driver, a connection pool, and prepared statements.

19.1 Project Objectives

• Configure MySQL Connector/J.
• Create a MySQL database and employees table.
• Configure a HikariCP DataSource.
• Insert employee records using PreparedStatement.
• Retrieve employee records using SELECT.
• Update employee information using parameterized queries.
• Delete selected records safely.
• Handle database exceptions and return connections to the pool.

19.2 Create the Database and Table

CREATE DATABASE company_db;
USE company_db;

CREATE TABLE employees (
    id INT PRIMARY KEY AUTO_INCREMENT,
    name VARCHAR(100) NOT NULL,
    email VARCHAR(150) NOT NULL UNIQUE,
    department VARCHAR(100) NOT NULL,
    salary DECIMAL(10,2) NOT NULL
);

19.3 Suggested Project Structure

EmployeeManagement/
├── pom.xml
└── src/
    └── main/
        └── java/
            └── com/example/
                ├── PooledDataSource.java
                ├── Employee.java
                ├── EmployeeDAO.java
                └── Main.java

19.4 Class Responsibilities

19.5 Suggested Application Menu

1. Add Employee
2. View All Employees
3. Search Employee by ID
4. Update Employee Department
5. Delete Employee
6. Exit

19.6 Expected Learning Outcomes

By completing the project, learners will understand how a driver enables database communication, how a connection pool manages reusable connections, and how prepared statements execute parameterized queries. The project also reinforces exception handling, resource management, and secure database access.

20. Practice Exercises

1. Install MySQL Connector/J and establish a JDBC connection.
2. Create a database and an employees table.
3. Write a program to retrieve all employee records.
4. Insert an employee using PreparedStatement.
5. Update an employee's salary using a parameterized query.
6. Delete an employee by ID.
7. Configure a HikariCP connection pool.
8. Use the pooled DataSource in multiple DAO methods.
9. Compare direct connections and pooled connections under repeated requests.
10. Handle a duplicate email error gracefully.
11. Test a query with special characters in the input.
12. Simulate a connection acquisition timeout and investigate the cause.
13. Use a transaction for two related database updates.
14. Review logs and pool metrics to identify resource-management problems.

21. Interview Questions and Answers

Q1. What is a database driver?

Answer: A database driver is software that enables an application or database API to communicate with a particular database system.

Q2. What is MySQL Connector/J?

Answer: MySQL Connector/J is the JDBC driver used by Java applications to communicate with MySQL.

Q3. What is JDBC?

Answer: JDBC stands for Java Database Connectivity. It provides Java interfaces for establishing database connections and executing SQL statements.

Q4. What is connection pooling?

Answer: Connection pooling manages reusable database connections so that applications do not need to establish a new physical connection for every operation.

Q5. What are the advantages of connection pooling?

Answer: It reduces repeated connection setup overhead, helps manage concurrency, and provides configurable connection limits and timeouts.

Q6. Name a popular Java connection pool.

Answer: HikariCP is a widely used JDBC connection pool. Apache Commons DBCP is another option.

Q7. What is PreparedStatement?

Answer: PreparedStatement is a JDBC interface for executing parameterized SQL statements using bound values.

Q8. How does PreparedStatement help prevent SQL injection?

Answer: It keeps parameter values separate from the SQL statement structure, preventing those values from being interpreted as SQL syntax in properly parameterized queries.

Q9. What is the difference between executeQuery() and executeUpdate()?

Answer: executeQuery() is commonly used for queries that return a ResultSet, such as SELECT. executeUpdate() is commonly used for INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE and returns an affected-row count.

Q10. Why should connections be closed when using a pool?

Answer: Closing a borrowed connection returns it to the pool for reuse and prevents connections from remaining occupied unnecessarily.

Q11. Does closing a pooled connection always close the physical database connection?

Answer: No. In typical pooled DataSource implementations, closing the borrowed connection returns it to the pool. The pool decides when a physical connection should be retired.

Q12. What happens when a connection pool reaches its maximum size?

Answer: New requests may wait for an available connection until the configured acquisition timeout is reached.

Q13. Can PreparedStatement parameterize a table name?

Answer: No. Placeholders represent values, not SQL identifiers. Dynamic identifiers should be selected from an allowlist and handled carefully.

Q14. What is a connection leak?

Answer: A connection leak occurs when an application borrows a connection but fails to return it reliably, reducing the number of connections available to other requests.

Q15. How do you choose an appropriate pool size?

Answer: Consider workload concurrency, query duration, MySQL capacity, and connection limits. Measure actual performance and adjust the configuration based on monitoring and load tests.

22. Quick Revision Checklist

• A database driver enables communication between an application and a database.
• MySQL Connector/J is the JDBC driver for MySQL.
• JDBC provides standard Java interfaces for database access.
• Connection represents a database connection.
• Connection pools manage reusable connections.
• HikariCP is a popular Java connection-pooling library.
• DataSource provides a standard way to obtain database connections.
• PreparedStatement executes parameterized SQL statements.
• Parameter binding helps prevent SQL injection.
• executeQuery() commonly retrieves query results.
• executeUpdate() commonly performs INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE operations.
• try-with-resources helps close JDBC resources.
• Pool size and timeouts should be configured according to measured workload.
• Secure credentials, least privilege, and TLS are important database security practices.

23. Official Learning Resources

• MySQL Connector/J Developer Guide – Driver setup, connection configuration, and JDBC features.
• Oracle JDBC Tutorial – General JDBC concepts and database programming.
• HikariCP Project Documentation – Connection pool configuration and usage.

24. Conclusion

Database drivers, connection pools, and prepared statements are essential building blocks for reliable database applications. A database driver enables communication between the application and MySQL. A connection pool manages reusable connections to reduce repeated setup overhead. PreparedStatement allows applications to execute parameterized SQL and helps prevent SQL injection.

By combining these techniques with proper transaction management, exception handling, secure credential storage, and resource cleanup, developers can build database applications that are more maintainable, secure, and efficient.

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